A practical reference on Epithalamin: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
Reviewed 2026-02-27. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Published work on this compound consists mainly of in vitro experiments, animal studies, and small clinical investigations, a substantial share of which appeared in Russian-language journals. Sample sizes are generally small, control conditions differ between studies, and several endpoints rely on markers whose clinical meaning is itself debated. Reviews of the longevity field treat the peptide as an early example of telomerase-directed research rather than an established intervention. Regulatory treatment varies by country: some jurisdictions place it under prescription controls, others treat it as a laboratory material, and importation may be restricted regardless of local status.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was developed in Russia during the 1980s and 1990s by investigators associated with the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, who studied short peptides as regulators of gene expression and tissue function. The alternative spelling epithalon appears interchangeably in the literature, and the two names refer to the same molecule. Outside Russia it is encountered chiefly as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine, and it holds no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency.
（TG:@pojiaai）Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. It emerged from work on epithalamin, a peptide fraction prepared from bovine pineal tissue, and was designed as a short, chemically defined analogue of that extract. Early publications came mainly from Russian laboratories studying pineal peptides and aging-related endpoints. The compound appears in the literature under several spellings, including epithalon and epithalone, which complicates systematic searching. Its small size makes solid-phase assembly and routine analytical characterization straightforward.
Chemically, the molecule consists of four amino acid residues joined by three peptide bonds, with a free N-terminal amino group and a free C-terminal carboxyl group. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9, and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 390 daltons. The acidic glutamate and aspartate side chains give the peptide a net negative charge near neutral pH, a property that shapes its chromatographic behaviour and solubility profile. No disulfide bridges or other post-translational modifications are present, so the primary sequence alone defines the structure.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Peptide sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Often abbreviated AEDG in research literature |
| Common synonyms | Epithalon, epitalon, AEDG | Spelling variants refer to the same tetrapeptide |
| Molecular formula | C14H22N4O9 | Theoretical monoisotopic mass near 390.35 Da |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typically supplied as a lyophilised solid |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Hydrophilic peptide; dissolves in aqueous buffer |
The compound is generally presented as a synthetic fragment of epithalamin, a pineal gland extract investigated in the former Soviet Union from the 1970s onward. Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues in Saint Petersburg developed short peptides modelled on such extracts, and epitalon became the most widely cited of those sequences. Most primary reports appeared in Russian-language journals or in proceedings with limited international circulation. Independent replication in laboratories outside that network remains sparse, and much repeated secondary material traces back to a small number of originating groups.
Laboratory work has examined effects on telomerase activity in cultured cells, on melatonin rhythms in animals, and on markers of oxidative stress. Some experiments report measurable changes while others show none, and the reported findings rest largely on small studies. The absence of large independent trials means the generality of these results is unresolved rather than settled. Review articles occasionally apply the label geroprotector, a term that reflects a research hypothesis about ageing rather than an established clinical finding.
Epitalon is the common name for a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, usually abbreviated AEDG. All four residues are proteinogenic amino acids, and the free peptide has a calculated mass near 390 grams per mole. Because the chain is short and carries no modifications, it is assembled readily by solid-phase synthesis and is distributed mainly as a freeze-dried solid for laboratory work. Catalogue listings use the spellings epitalon, epithalone, and simply AEDG, and the three refer to the same sequence.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, written in single-letter code as AEDG. The four residues are joined by three peptide bonds, giving a linear backbone with no branching and no disulfide bridges. Its calculated molecular mass for the free form is approximately 390.3 daltons, a figure that rises when the compound is supplied as an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt. Because the chain is short, the molecule is defined entirely by its residue order rather than by any folded three-dimensional structure.
The four residues give epitalon a molecular formula of C14H22N4O9 and a molecular weight near 390.35 daltons. The presence of two acidic residues, glutamate and aspartate, makes the free peptide strongly acidic, while the alanine and glycine ends provide neutral, nonpolar character. This combination produces a molecule with substantial water solubility. Because there are no cysteine, methionine, or tryptophan residues, the peptide lacks the most common oxidation-sensitive side chains, which simplifies handling compared with many longer peptides.
The proposed relationship between epitalon and pineal function is a central part of its background. Khavinson's group reported that short peptides corresponding to regions of larger pineal proteins could influence gene expression in cells. Epitalon was framed as a synthetic analogue of an active fragment rather than a direct isolation product. Whether the tetrapeptide reproduces the effects of the parent extract is an open question, because comparative studies are limited and the parent extract itself is not a single defined substance.
Published evidence comes mainly from Russian-language journals and from a single research group, with small sample sizes and limited independent replication. A few laboratories outside that group have examined related peptides and reported weaker or absent telomerase effects, so the central claim is best described as contested rather than settled. Rodent studies report modest changes in some ageing markers and in survival, but designs vary and control conditions are often sparse. No large randomised trial in humans has been published, and long-term safety data in healthy populations are correspondingly thin.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was designed at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology as a short, chemically defined analogue of epithalamin, a fraction obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Small peptide bioregulators of this type formed a long-running line of work there from the 1980s onward. Because the molecule is produced by solid-phase synthesis rather than extraction, its composition is exact and its purity can be measured directly.
The most frequently cited proposed action is induction of telomerase, the enzyme that adds repeat sequences to chromosome ends. Cell-culture work from the originating group reported higher telomerase reverse transcriptase expression and measurable telomere elongation in human somatic cells after exposure. How a four-residue peptide would reach nuclear gene regulation is not established, and no cell-surface receptor or uptake route has been identified. Additional reports describe changes in melatonin secretion, antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in aged animals, but these findings remain mechanistically unconnected to the telomerase observation.
Infections with carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae were associated with organ/stem cell transplantation, mechanical ventilation, exposure to antimicrobials, and overall longer length of stay in hospitals. People most likely to acquire carbapenem-resistant bacteria are those already receiving medical attention. In a study carried out at Sheba medical center, there was a trend toward worse Charleson Comorbidity scores in patients who acquired CRKP during ICU stay. Those at highest risk are patients receiving an organ or stem cell implantation, use of mechanical ventilation, or have to have an extended stay in the hospital along with exposure to antimicrobials. A study performed in Singapore, on the acquisition of ertapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae to the acquisition of CRE. revealed that exposure to antibiotics, especially fluoroquinolones and previous hospitalization dramatically increased the risk of acquisition carbapenem-resistant bacteria. This study found that carbapenem-resistant acquisition has a significantly higher mortality rate and poorer clinical response compared to that of the ertapenem-resistance acquisition. Bacteruria (also known as urinary tract infection) caused by CRKp and CSKp have similar risk factors. These include prior antibiotic use, admittance to an ICU, use of a permanent urinary catheter, and previous invasive procedures or operations.
=== Amateur === The North Carolina Tigers compete as an Australian rules football club in the United States Australian Football League, in the Eastern Australian Football League. The Raleigh Cú Chulainn Gaelic Athletic Association competes in men's and women's Gaelic Football, Hurling, and Camogie. It is a member in the Southeast Division of the United States Gaelic Athletic Association and the Gaelic Athletic Association based in Ireland. The Raleigh GAA won the Junior B Men's Football national championship in 2014. The Raleigh GAA and the North Carolina Tigers Australian rules football clubs compete in the annual Oak City Cup where both clubs compete under the compromise football rules adapted by Ireland and Australia for international competition. Raleigh is also home to one of the Cheer Extreme All Stars gyms. In 2009 and again in 2010, Cheer Extreme Raleigh's Small Senior Level 5 Team were silver medalists at the Cheerleading Worlds Competition in Orlando, Florida, and in 2012 they received the bronze medal. Raleigh is also home to one of the Southeast's premier Hardcourt Bike Polo clubs. Because of the area's many billiards rooms, Raleigh is home to one of the largest amateur league franchises for playing pool, the Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill American Poolplayers Association. There are leagues available in formats for players of any skill level.
== Prolactin == Agonists: Growth hormone Human placental lactogen Placental growth hormone (growth hormone variant) Prolactin S179D-hPRL Somatotropin Antagonists: Δ1–9-G129R-hPRL Δ1–14-G129R-hPRL G120K-hGH G129R-hPRL Prolactin modulators: Prolactin inhibitors: D2 receptor agonists (e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline); Prolactin releasers: D2 receptor antagonists (e.g., domperidone, metoclopramide, risperidone) Estrogens (e.g., estradiol) Progestogens (e.g., progesterone)
== Brand names == Brand names for Oxymetazoline include Afrin, ClariClear, Dristan, Drixine, Drixoral, Nasivin, Nasivion, Nezeril, Nostrilla, Logicin, Vicks Sinex, Visine L.R., Sudafed OM, Otrivin, Oxy, SinuFrin, Vicks Sinex Severe (Spray), and Mucinex Sinus-Max. A topical cream formulation is sold under the brand name Rhofade. Oxymetazoline ophthalmic solution for the treatment of acquired blepharoptosis is marketed as Upneeq. In the United Arab Emirates, oxymetazoline nasal sprays are sold under imported brand names such as Otrivin. The UAE does not manufacture oxymetazoline but domestic pharmaceutical companies such as Julphar produce xylometazoline, a structurally related imidazoline decongestant.
== Historical timeline == 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X-rays ("bremsstrahlung", from German for radiation produced by deceleration) 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers natural radioactivity; Minck proposes the therapeutic use 1904 Samuel Prescott describes the bactericide effects Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 1906 Appleby & Banks: UK patent to use radioactive isotopes to irradiate particulate food in a flowing bed 1918 Gillett: U.S. Patent to use X-rays for the preservation of food 1921 Schwartz describes the elimination of Trichinella from food 1930 Wuest: French patent on food irradiation 1943 MIT becomes active in the field of food preservation for the U.S. Army 1951 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission begins to co-ordinate national research activities 1958 World first commercial food irradiation (spices) at Stuttgart, Germany 1963 FDA approves food irradiation. NASA begins irradiating astronaut food items to prevent food borne illness during space missions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Additives like 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GOPS) can drastically improve the mechanical stability in aqueous media even at low concentrations of 1 wt% without significantly impeding the electrical properties. PEDOT:PSS can also show self-healing properties if submerged in water after sustaining mechanical damage. This self-healing capability is proposed to be enabled by the hygroscopic property of PSS−. Common PEDOT:PSS additives that improve the electrical conductivity have varying effects on self-healing. While ethylene glycol improves electrical and mechanical self-healing, sulfuric acid reduces the former but improves the latter, presumably because it undergoes autoprotolysis. Polyethylene glycol improves the electrical and thermoelectric self-healing, but reduces the mechanical self-healing. PEDOT:PSS is also attractive for conductive textile applications. Though it results in inferior thermoelectric properties, wet-spinning has been shown to result in high conductivity and stiff fibers due to preferential alignment of polymer chains during fiber drawing.
== The aerobic 4S pathway == The 4S pathway is a sulfur-specific metabolic pathway of oxidative desulfurization that converts dibenzothiophene (DBT) into 2-hydroxybiphenyl and sulfite. It uses a total of four NADH molecules (three required by DszD to generate FMNH2 and a fourth to regenerate the FMN-oxide byproduct of DszA) and three molecules of oxygen, thus producing NAD+ and water as byproducts.
== Chemistry == 1S-LSD belongs to the lysergamide class of compounds, which are characterized by the ergoline structure derived from lysergic acid. The compound is closely related to LSD and 1P-LSD but differs by the addition of a trimethylsilyl group on the propionyl chain. The nitrogen atom in the polycyclic indole group of the ergoline structure is a common site for chemical modifications, as it is highly reactive and accessible for various reactions. These modifications often include alkylations, acylations, Mannich reactions, and Michael additions. Such alterations are frequently explored in the synthesis of new analogues to modify pharmacological properties or evade legal controls. The addition of the trimethylsilyl group in 1S-LSD represents a strategic modification designed to keep the substance outside the coverage of Germany's New Psychoactive Substances Act (NpSG). Despite these changes, 1S-LSD likely retains a pharmacological profile similar to that of LSD, acting primarily as a serotonergic hallucinogen.
Coagulation, the formation of a blood clot or thrombus, occurs when the proteins of the coagulation cascade are activated, either by contact with a damaged blood vessel wall and exposure to collagen in the tissue space (intrinsic pathway) or by activation of factor VII by tissue activating factors (extrinsic pathway). Both pathways lead to the generation of thrombin, an enzyme that turns the soluble blood protein fibrinogen into fibrin, which aggregates into protofibrils. Another thrombin-generated enzyme, factor XIII, then crosslinks the fibrin protofibrils at the D fragment site, leading to the formation of an insoluble gel that serves as a scaffold for blood clot formation. The circulating enzyme plasmin, the main enzyme of fibrinolysis, cleaves the fibrin gel in a number of places. The resultant fragments, "high molecular weight polymers", are digested several times more by plasmin to lead to intermediate and then to small polymers (fibrin degradation products or FDPs). The cross-link between two D fragments remains intact, however, and these are exposed on the surface when the fibrin fragments are sufficiently digested. The structure of D-dimer is either a 180 kDa or 195 kDa molecule of two D domains, or a 340 kDa molecule of two D domains and one E domain. The half-life of D-dimer in blood is approximately 6 to 8 hours. D-dimers are not normally present in human blood plasma, except when the coagulation system has been activated, for instance, because of the presence of thrombosis or disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cells require a full and functional cellular machinery to live. When they belong to complex multicellular organisms, they need to communicate among themselves and work for symbiosis in order to give life to the organism. These communications between cells triggers intracellular signaling cascades, termed signal transduction pathways, that regulate specific cellular functions. Each signal transduction occurs with a primary extracellular messenger that binds to a transmembrane or nuclear receptor, initiating intracellular signals. The complex formed produces or releases second messengers that integrate and adapt the signal, amplifying it, by activating molecular targets, which in turn trigger effectors that will lead to the desired cellular response.
=== Reporting dates === Several formats for citing radiocarbon results have been used since the first samples were dated. As of 2019, the standard format required by the journal Radiocarbon is as follows. Uncalibrated dates should be reported as "laboratory:
Such challenges can include the difficulty associated with recycling different electrolyte compositions, removing side products accumulated from electrolyte decomposition during its runtime, and removal of electrolyte adsorbed onto the electrodes. Due to these challenges, current pyrometallurgical methods of Li-ion battery recycling forgo electrolyte recovery, releasing hazardous gases upon heating. However, due to high energy consumption and environmental impact, future recycling methods are being directed away from this approach.
=== First World Cup appearance (1958–1962) === Colombia entered World Cup qualifying for the first time in 1961, meeting Peru over two legs under Argentine manager Pedernera, who had remained in the country after El Dorado as a coach. A 1–0 win in Bogotá on 30 April 1961 was followed by a 1–1 draw in Lima a week later, and Colombia advanced to the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile. Drawn in Group 1 with Uruguay, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, Colombia lost their opening match to Uruguay 2–1 on 30 May and were beaten 5–0 by Yugoslavia on 7 June, finishing bottom of the group with a single point from three games and five goals scored against eleven conceded. Their remaining fixture, however, produced one of the tournament's defining results. Facing the reigning European champions at the Estadio Carlos Dittborn in Arica on 3 June before a crowd of 8,040, with Brazilian referee João Filho officiating, Colombia trailed 3–0 inside eleven minutes to goals from Valentin Ivanov in the eighth and eleventh minutes either side of an Igor Chislenko strike in the tenth. Germán Aceros reduced the deficit in the 21st minute, but Viktor Ponedelnik restored a three-goal lead in the 56th. With twenty minutes remaining, Marcos Coll scored directly from a corner in the 68th minute, the ball creeping in at the near post past Lev Yashin — the only goal scored direct from a corner in World Cup history, and conceded by a goalkeeper then widely regarded as the world's finest. Antonio Rada struck in the 72nd minute and Marino Klinger completed the recovery late on to secure a 4–4 draw.
== Chemical synthesis == Artesunate is made from dihydroartemisinin (DHA) by reacting it with succinic acid anhydride in a basic medium. It is one of few semi-synthetic derivatives from artemisinin that is water-soluble.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Epitalon is a synthetic four-amino-acid peptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, also written AEDG. It was developed in Russian gerontology research and is studied for proposed effects on telomerase, melatonin regulation, and neuroendocrine function. It is not an approved pharmaceutical in the United States or the European Union.
No. Epithalamin is a peptide-rich extract prepared from bovine pineal glands, while epitalon is a short synthetic peptide designed as a defined analogue of it. The synthetic version was intended to provide a reproducible molecule with some of the same proposed biological activity.
Telomere elongation and telomerase activation have been reported in cultured human somatic cells, but evidence from living human subjects is limited and has not been independently confirmed at scale. Reported findings come largely from small studies with differing designs, so the question remains open rather than settled.
It is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, often abbreviated AEDG. The molecule is linear and contains no modified residues, so it is fully described by its sequence.